Military conflicts escalate for many different reasons. Some continue to escalate despite diplomatic intervention and third-party mediation. The recent tensions between the United Nations and Iraq have frequently been referred to as gunboat diplomacy, that is, a situation in which diplomatic negotiations are intensified and backed up by the implied threat of military force. As you read the following chronology, decide the following:

• In your opinion, at what points did the conflict escalate the most?
• Were there moments when diplomatic negotiations might have been the most effective way of de-escalating the conflict?
• Were there moments when immediate military action was the only reasonable response?
• Is diplomacy more effective with or without the threat of military confrontation? Can you think of other negotiations that use the threat of force? Is force effective in these situations?

August 2, 1990 Iraq invades Kuwait.

January 16, 1991 A U.S.-led United Nations coalition begins a campaign of air raids on Baghdad.

February 23, 1991 The same coalition begins a ground offensive.

March 3, 1991 Iraq surrenders

April 6, 1991 Iraq accepts the terms of the ceasefire, including to unconditionally destroy all weapons of mass destruction and to allow UN inspectors to inspect its weapons sites. A UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) is established to carry out these inspections.

August 1992 A no-fly zone is established by the United States, Britain, and France to protect Iraqi dissidents in the south.

January 1993 Iraq violates the no-fly zone by moving anti-aircraft missiles into the zone. U.S., British, and French planes begin targeting these missiles and U.S. missiles bomb an industrial complex near Baghdad.

June 1993 U.S. forces launch a missile attack against the intelligence headquarters in Baghdad.

October 1994 Iraqi troops mass along the Kuwait border. The United States sends a force of 36 000 soldiers to Kuwait.

November 1994 Iraq renounces any historical claim it laid to Kuwait.

May 1996 The United Nations lifts the embargo to allow Iraq to sell $2-billion (U.S.) worth of oil to buy food. (One third of the money is confiscated to pay for war reparations to Kuwait and others, another portion goes to the UN for compensation for expenses in carrying out the sanctions, and the rest goes to buy food, medicine, and other supplies for Iraq.)

June 1997 Iraq bars the UN inspectors from what it calls the “presidential sites.”

October 1997 Iraq bars U.S. personnel from the UN inspection teams.

November 1997 The United Nations condemns Iraq’s actions. The United States deploys its aircraft carrier Washington. Russia offers a compromise. Iraq agrees to allow U.S. personnel on the inspection teams again.

January 1998 Baghdad bars UN inspectors from presidential sites and once again bars U.S. personnel from the UN inspection teams.

February 8, 1998 U.S. President Bill Clinton speaks to Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, requesting non-combative-military support in the manner of transport and search-and-rescue resources.

February 10, 1998 Chrétien meets with his cabinet to formally consider the U.S. request for military support. The government decides to send 350 Canadian Forces troops, including HMS Toronto and two Hercules KC-130 planes. HMS Toronto, already stationed with NATO forces in the Mediterranean Sea, heads for the Persian Gulf. The Canadian mission is called Operation Determination.

February 20, 1998 The UN Security Council raises the ceiling on Iraqi oil exports to $5.2-billion (U.S.) every six months.

February 22, 1998 Iraqi President Saddam Hussein agrees to a deal negotiated by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan.

February 23, 1998 Annan and the Iraq government sign the agreement. Iraq allows the UN inspection teams to monitor the presidential sites.

March 2, 1998 The UN Security Council passes Resolution 1154, which outlines the agreement signed by Saddam Hussein and Kofi Annan. The HMS Toronto remains in the Persian Gulf.

Follow-up Activities
1. Research the relations between the United States and Iraq prior to 1990. Do your research results surprise you? How does the history of this region complicate the tense situation today?

2. Follow this news story as it develops further, using the print media, the broadcast media, or the Internet as your resources.